Pure Bureaucratic Organization Features

Pure Bureaucratic Organization Features Every organization has a set of objectives it wants to achieve. These can merely be performance targets a management wants to attain, or can better be described as a measure of organizational growth. However, objectives of each individual might not be aligned with those of the organization, and therefore, to ensure that the organization is able to meet its objectives with maximum efficiency, it is imperative to exert some form of control over the organization. Bureaucracy is an authority that maximizes efficiency and effectiveness of the organization and exercises control on the basis of technical knowledge (Weber, 1947:339). Bureaucracy is a form of organizational design defined by a number of formal characteristics focused on centralization, authority, impersonality and a rational career structure; all arranged in a hierarchical ascending order with clear cut division of labour and specialized tasks in line with rights and entitlements linked to the position in hierarchy (Clegg et al., 2008:486; Clegg and Hardy, 1999:8). Max Weber (1864-1920), a great German academic and sociologist was the first to formulate the characteristics of a bureaucracy. Well known for his study of bureaucratization of society, he set the foundations for all subsequent work on this subject. Weber, in his work The Three Types of Legitimate Rules (1958) contrasted three types of authority: traditional authority, charismatic authority and rational-legal authority. However, he identified rational-legal authority to be the heart of bureaucracy and defined it as: an authority resting on a belief in the legality of patterns of normative rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands (Weber, 1947:215). As for this, the authority given to these officials is determined by the office they are appointed to and once these official leave the office, their authority is lost. For Weber, the terms bureaucracy and rationality were both tied together, and thus he coined the term ideal type to the rational-legal form. Primary Features of a Bureaucratic Organization Weber identified what he believed to be the main characteristics of a pure bureaucratic organization. His idea on bureaucracy was to describe an ideal organization one which is perfectly rational and would provide maximum efficiency and consistency to the organization. We are now going to discuss the characteristics that form the essence of Webers rational bureaucracy that be found in his work Economy and Society: an Outline of Interpretive Sociology (1978:221-3). Bureaucratic organizations can be characterized through the formal aspects of Frederick Taylors Scientific Management school of thought which is considered to be the foundation of classical management theory and enhances the idea of improving efficiency and productivity within the workplace (Dean, 1997). First is centralization, which refers to the level of hierarchy with authority to make decisions. Each level is accountable to the level above and controls the level below (Weber, 1978). Hierarchy delineates the line of authority and shows a clear chain of command, allowing job definition to be most rational and most efficient (Grey, 2009). Secondly, there is a highly developed division of labour and specialization of tasks. Duties of all officials are clearly defined such that employees are organized into groups based upon their technical skills, thus covering the area of competence they are technically trained for. In lines with this, Taylors principles of Scientific Management the ory suggests that a trained employee should be selected for the job rather than having him choose his own work and training himself as best he could (Dean, 1997). Another feature that develops a bureaucratic organization is formalization, which refers to the set of written rules and formal procedures management has to abide by. Firstly, there is a strict separation between official duties of a bureaucrat and their private and emotional life. In this, management is operated on certain rules contained in files of written documents rather than personal feelings of the employees (Weber, 1921/1968). This allows a uniform execution of decisions and actions towards the lower levels through formal systems of rules and regulations, and thus it is an imperative source of efficiency maximization. Ouchi (1977) points out that an organizations formal system, identified as written procedures and policies, help meet organizational goals in an efficient manner and detect misconducts taking place within the organization. Moreover, all decision and actions taken by the organization are recorded in written documents. This helps regulate behavior of the employees. Although this might not seem as an essential part of a bureaucracy, yet it is the arrangement that best fits the pure type (Weber, 1957:335). Starting with the mode of recruitment, another feature that develops a pure bureaucratic organization is that personnel are hired on grounds of technical competence and not on any other consideration such as political loyalty or family inheritance. The appointment of an individual is based upon their qualifications and expertise to accomplish the specialized duties effectively. When entering a bureaucratic organization, individuals are expected to make office their sole occupation and make a career within the organization (Weber, 1978:220). Insofar as the remuneration in a bureaucratic organization is concerned, the opportunity for promotion is based upon an elaborate system of seniority and achievement of an individual. Moreover, the bureaucrats are salaried officials and normally receive a fixed salary based more upon the status of their position rather than their productivity or performance. Clegg et al. (2008) asserts that different positions in a hierarchy are differently paid. The characteristics discussed above illustrate Webers ideal type of rational and efficient bureaucracy. Many of these features that now seem common and obvious to us did not always exist, and can therefore be characterized as Webers invention. Furthermore, as suggested in Webers definition and by Scientific Management theory, these features exist as a set of formal entities such that they are predefined by the management and are deliberately and consciously created to achieve specified goals (Dwyer, 2005:1234). Bureaucracy or Post-bureaucracy? For most of us today when we think of the term bureaucracy, negative connotations such as inefficiency, redundancy, rigidity, red tape culture and the like come to mind. However, bureaucracy in Webers period was considered extremely successful and was seen as efficient machine devised to ultimately achieve desired goals. The purpose of this essay however is not to discuss the success or failure of a bureaucracy, but rather to analyze if we still live in a bureaucratic world, or in a post-bureaucratic one. Post-bureaucracy is an refined organizational model developed to best suit todays dynamic organizations. Salaman (2005) asserts that post-bureaucracy is supposed to be more efficient, more dynamic, more innovative and more understanding towards the need to change. It merely refers to a fundamental shift away from traditional bureaucratic features which can be characterized through reduced formal levels of hierarchy, more flexibility than rule-following, decentralization of authority, and a collaboration of trust, teamwork, and shared responsibility (Heckscher, 1994). One of the features of Webers ideal type of bureaucracy is based upon centralization; however most large and successful organizations today are organizing themselves into smaller, autonomous and more manageable units thus becoming more decentralized. Various scholars (Miner et al., 2000; Repenning, 2002; Sigglekow and Rivki, 2003) have recently developed a resurgence of interest towards the linkage of structure and strategy, and have focused on how smaller structures in dynamic environments can be used to produce organizational adaptations. Their study links to how simpler structure can improvise learning, increase professionalism and be an appropriate mechanism for controlling organizations. Although Daft (2009:348) argues that decentralization represents a paradox because, in the perfect bureaucracy, all decisions would be made by the top administrator, who would have perfect control. Nevertheless, it can be seen that larger an organization becomes, the more decentralized and compl ex it gets. The rationale behind this is that when an organization grows, the number of levels in hierarchy (vertical complexity) and the number of departments (horizontal complexity) grow with it, thus decisions are diffused to the lower levels of management and pressure to subdivide arises, or else managers cannot control them effectively. We can see today that most successful companies such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, General Foods, 3M, etc are now seen adapting decentralization. CEO Mike Quinlan of McDonalds says that he pushes directions as far down the hierarchy as he can; otherwise, McDonalds decision making would be too slow. Hage and Aiken (1967) support this idea in their research on organization size that larger organizations permit greater decentralization and use Campbell Soup Company and American Airlines as examples (cited in Daft, 2009:348). A small group of theorists (Heckscher and Donnellon, 1994; Gratton, 2004; Pollitt, 2008) have developed upon the theory of typical shift towards post-bureaucracy that in a world of such increasing uncertainty and complexity; hierarchies have now become flat, horizontal connections are emphasized, companies are now more fluid and virtual. As all of these features can be observed in large-scale organizations today, I am in support of Robbins (1990:308) thought that in large and complex organizations, decentralization has become de riguer. Although we have discussed above that large scale organizations are becoming more decentralized, that is they are lacking the pure bureaucratic feature of centralization and hierarchical authority, this however does not mean that hierarchy has been eliminated in them or that they have left behind the core tenets of bureaucracy. They still abide by the Webers bureaucratic rigid rules, written procedures, and impersonality. Heckscher and Donnellon (1994) argue along these lines and describe them as cleaned up bureaucracies. Moreover, according to HÃ ¶pfl (2006:19), an entirely non- or post-bureaucratic organization without hierarchy is simply inconceivable and in addition asserts that post-bureaucratic arrangements appear as variants within bureaucracy. Today, large organizations tend to be more formalized than the smaller ones. The underlying principle behind this is that in large organizations the number of employees and departments is significantly higher, making them more dependable upon the written rules, regulations and paperwork to standardize operations and exercise control. Robbins (1990:96) uses McDonalds to support this argument and states that McDonalds operating manual has 385 pages describing the most minute activities in each outlet. No cigarette, candy or pin ball machines are allowed. Basic hamburger patty must be 1.6 ounces of pure beef with no more than 19.5% fat content. Buns must have 13.3% sugar in them. In regard with this example, it can be seen that even in todays large-scale organizations employees are taken as machine-like objects with no personal feelings. Bureaucracys strength is its capacity to manage routine tasks efficiently in stable and predictable environments. On the contrary, small organizations these days tend to deploy less degree of formalization in their operations which provides employees with considerable freedom in executing their duties and achieving objectives (Robbins, 1990:93). Having said that, top management in small organizations can nevertheless deploy their personal observation skills as a tool to continuously monitor productivity levels and regulate control (Hall, 1963). This implies that sufficient tools are available in small organizations to positively impact overall team dynamics without having to enforce a set of stringent rules and regulations that individuals are restrained by. This in turn empowers employees with a sense of belonging towards the organization and builds a strong relationship amongst them, weaved by trust and personal loyalties (Maravelias, 2003). In lines with the existence of bureaucratic features in todays era, different schools of thought exist. An extensive number of theorists have conducted case studies on organizational structures existing in both public and private sectors. Harris (2006) conducted a study on British Library to explore widespread adoption of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). He concluded that ICT in modern libraries can foster them to become innovative virtual organizations; putting an end to bureaucracy and thus initiate a new flexible and modern-bureaucratic organizational form. Similarly, Briand and Bellemare (2006), in their study about complex changes taking place in a Canadian International Development Research Centre, propose that a shift away from centralized model of governance is being observed, which is entailed with with a reduction of surveillance and produced a new flat structure of domination. Furthermore, Budd (2007), in his research draws upon the environmental changes suc h as introduction of ICT based services, standardization and flexibility. He claims that these changes have helped replace bureaucracy in public policy and public management operations. In contrast to the aforementioned cases which observe the essence of post-bureaucratic patterns in the transformed era we now live in, another group of research scientists have presented their findings by conducting studies about organizations that have not adapted to a paradigm shift, away from bureaucracy. Hill et al. (2000:578), in their study of UK and US Research and Development (RD) projects considered decentralization as an aspect of post-bureaucratic paradigm in RD functions. They concluded that centralization is still the norm as no evidence of move towards decentralization or was observed. In similar lines, Hodgson (2004) argued in his study that project management can never eliminate central control, not the tensions linked with it; instead it has distinct modalities of control, each of which generates quite specific tensions. These are not so much an innovation in organization form but a repositioning of some classic questions. In addition to this Barker (1993) studied se lf-managing teams in the US and observed that dehumanizing tendencies within them exist, thus tightening Webers iron cage of rational control. As a response to whether we are living in a bureaucratic or a post-bureaucratic epoch, there is certainly no doubt that organizations today are experiencing rapid technological and innovative changes, but these changes however are not leaving bureaucracy behind. Bureaucracy, in some form or the other, still exists in all organizations. Conclusion First part of this essay discusses the general features that constitute a pure bureaucratic organization. Thus, I am of the opinion that these bureaucratic features were consciously formed to meet the organizations objectives in the most productive and efficient manner. Second part of the essay provides an analytical review of the current patterns of organizational structures to help establish the extent of bureaucratic elements that still exists within modern organizations. Due to the given scope limitations, the primary content of this essay only outlines concepts of Webers ideal type bureaucracy and few critical approaches to provide a radical analysis of bureaucracy and post-bureaucracy era. This constraint however limits my analysis and prevents from further building upon the controversies identified by other research theorists which are primarily associated with these core characteristics. Although bureaucracy entails with it words such as red tape and inefficiency, bureaucracy is only a type of an organizational structure and there is no unanimously acknowledged perspective whether it is good or bad. Referring to Greys (2009) idea that bureaucracies are well suited for businesses that involve routine task or machine-like operations rather than for those which experience rapid technological changes, I reject the exclusive consideration of either bureaucracies or post-bureaucracies. The aforementioned idea implies that we live either in a purely bureaucratic epoch, or one which completely washes away the bureaucratic features; in other words a post-bureaucratic one. Although bureaucracy, with its adequately defined rigid features to some extent is indeed incompatible with todays growth and rapid change; yet in my view all organizations in some way or the other demonstrate certain degree of bureaucratic characteristics. As for this, I endorse HÃ ¶pfls (2006) idea that a complete transition from bureaucracy to a modern era would require either a death of hierarchy, or some measures that are entirely incompatible with bureaucracy. In light of all this, it can thus be concluded that despite the criticism directed towards bureaucracy, we are in the midst of a threshold both bureaucracy and modernity still continue to live with us.

The Life Of Mahatma Ghandi Essay -- essays research papers

Mahatma Gandhi Introduction Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism and the prophet of nonviolence in the 20th century, was born, the youngest child of his father's fourth wife, on Oct. 2, 1869, at Porbandar, the capital of a small principality in Gujarat in western India under British suzerainty. His father, Karamchand Gandhi, who was the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar, did not have much in the way of a formal education but was an able administrator who knew how to steer his way between the capricious princes, their long-suffering subjects, and the headstrong British political officers in power. Gandhi's mother, Putlibai, was completely absorbed in religion, did not care much for finery and jewelry, divided her time between her home and the temple, fasted frequently, and wore herself out in days and nights of nursing whenever there was sickness in the family. Mohandas grew up in a home steeped in Vaishnavism (Vaisnavism)--worship of the Hindu god Vishnu (Visnu)--with a strong tinge of Jainism, a morally rigorous Indian religion, whose chief tenets are nonviolence and the belief that everything in the universe is eternal. Thus he took for granted ahimsa (noninjury to all living beings), vegetarianism, fasting for self-purification, and mutual tolerance between adherents of various creeds and sects. (see also Index: ahimsa, or ahimsa) Youth. The educational facilities at Porbandar were rudimentary; in the primary school that Mohandas attended, the children wrote the alphabet in the dust with their fingers. Luckily for him, his father became dewan of Rajkot, another princely state. Though he occasionally won prizes and scholarships at the local schools, his record was on the whole mediocre. One of the terminal reports rated him as "good at English, fair in Arithmetic and weak in Geography; conduct very good, bad handwriting." A diffident child, he was married at the age of 13 and thus lost a year at school. He shone neither in the classroom nor on the playing field. He loved to go out on long solitary walks when he was not nursing his by now ailing father or helping his mother with her household chores. He had learned, in his words, "to carry out the orders of the elders, not to scan them." With such extreme passivity, it is not surprising that he should have gone through a phase of adolescent rebel... ...reading John Ruskin's Unto This Last, a critique of capitalism, he set up a farm at Phoenix near Durban where he and his friends could literally live by the sweat of their brow. Six years later another colony grew up under Gandhi's fostering care near Johannesburg; it was named Tolstoy Farm after the Russian writer and moralist, whom Gandhi admired and corresponded with. Those two settlements were the precursors of the more famous ashrams (ashramas) in India, at Sabarmati near Ahmedabad (Ahmadabad) and at Sevagram near Wardha. South Africa had not only prompted Gandhi to evolve a novel technique for political action but also transformed him into a leader of men by freeing him from bonds that make cowards of most men. "Persons in power," Gilbert Murray prophetically wrote about Gandhi in the Hibbert Journal in 1918, "should be very careful how they deal with a man who cares nothing for sensual pleasure, nothing for riches, nothing for comfort or praise, or promotion, but is simply determined to do what he believes to be right. He is a dangerous and uncomfortable enemy, because his body which you can always conquer gives you so little purchase upon his soul."

Eight Important Duties of an Agent Towards the Principal Essay

1. Duty to follow principal’s directions or customs (Sec. 211): The first duty of every agent is to act within the scope of the authority conferred upon him and perform the agency work according to the directions given by the principal. When the agent acts otherwise, if any loss be sustained, he must make it good to the principal, and if any profit accrues, he must account for it.   Illustrations: (a) Where the principal instructed the agent to warehouse the goods at a particular place and the agent warehoused them at a different warehouse which was equally safe, and the goods were destroyed by fire without negligence, it was held that the agent was liable for the loss because any departure from the instructions makes the agent absolutely liable (Lilley vs Doubleday). (b) An agent being instructed to insure goods neglects to do so. He is liable to compensate the principal in the event of these being lost (Pannalal Jankidas vs Mohanlal). If the principal has not given any express or implied directions, then it is the duty of the agent to follow the custom prevailing in the same kind of business at the place where the agent conducts business. If the agent makes any departure, he does so at his own risk. He must make good any loss so sustained by the principal. Illustrations (Appended To Sec. 211): (a) A, an agent, engaged in carrying on for B a business, in which it is the custom to invest from time to time at interest, the moneys which may be in hand, omits to make such investments. A must make good to B the interest usually obtained by such investments. (b) B, a broker, in whose business it is not the custom to sell on credit, sells goods of A on credit to C, whose credit at the time was very high. C, before payment, becomes insolvent. B must make good the loss to A, irrespective of his good intentions. 2. Duty to carry out the work with reasonable skill and diligence (Sec. 212): The agent must conduct the business is generally possessed by persons engaged in similar business, unless the principal has notice of his want of skill. Further, the agent must act with reasonable diligence and to the best of his skill.   If the agent does not work with reasonable care, skill (unless the principal has notice of his want of skill) and diligence, he must make compensation to his principal in respect of ‘direct consequences’ of his own neglect, want of skill or misconduct. But he is not so liable for indirect or remote losses. Illustrations (Appended To Sec. 212): (a) A, a merchant in Kolkata, has an agent B, in London, to whom a sum of money is paid on A’s account, with orders to remit. B retains the money for a considerable time. A, in consequence of not receiving the money, becomes insolvent. B is liable for the money and interest from the day on which it ought to have been paid, according to the usual rate, and for any further direct loss such as loss by variation of rate of exchange, but nothing further. (b) A, an agent for the sale of goods, having authority to sell goods on credit, sells to B on credit, without making the proper and usual enquiries as to the solvency of B. B, at the time of such sale, is insolvent. A must make compensation to his principal in respect of any loss thereby sustained. 3. Duty to Render Accounts (Sec. 213): It is the duty of an agent to keep proper accounts of his principal’s money or property and render them to him on demand, or periodically if so provided in the agreement. 4. Duty to communicate (Sec. 214): It is the duty of an agent, in cases of difficulty, to use all reasonable diligence in communicating with his principal, and in seeking to obtain his instructions, before taking any steps in facing the difficulty or emergency. 5. Duty not to deal on his own account (Sees. 215 and 216): An agent must not deal on his own   account in the business of agency; i.e., he must not himself buy from or sell to his principal goods he is askedto sell or buy on behalf of his principal; without obtaining the consent of his principal after disclosing all material facts to him. If the agent violates this rule, the principal may repudiate the transaction where it can be shown that any material fact has been knowingly concealed by the agent, or that the dealings of the agent have been disadvantageous to the principal. The principal is also entitled to claim from the agent any benefit which may have resulted to him from the transaction. Illustrations: (a) A, directs B to sell A’s estate. B buys the estate for himself in the name of   . A, on discovering that B has bought the estate for himself may repudiate the sale, if he can show that B has dishonestly concealed any material fact or that the sale has been disavantageous to him. [Illustration (a) Appended to Section 215 ( b)A directs, B, his agent, to buy a certain house for him. B tells A that it cannot be bought and buys the house for himself. A may, on discovering that B has bought the house, compel him to sell it to A at the price he gave for it. [Illustration appended to Section 216] 6. Duty not to make any profit out of his agency except his remuneration (Sees. 217 and 218): An agent stands in a fiduciary relation to his principal and therefore he must not make any profit (secret profit) out of his agency. He must pay to his principal all moneys (including illegal gratification, if any) received by him on principal’s account. He can, however, deduct all moneys due to himself in respect of his remuneration or/and expenses properly incurred. If his acts are not bonafide, he will lose his remuneration and will have to account for the secret profit to his principal. 7. Duty on termination of agency by principal’s death or insanity (Sec. 209): When an agency is terminated by the principal dying or becoming of unsound mind, the agent must take, on behalf of the representatives of his late principal, all reasonable steps for the protection and preservation of the interests entrusted to him. 8. Duty not to delegate authority (Sec. 190): Subject to six exceptions stated earlier (under the heading Delegation of Authority), an agent must not further delegate his authority to another person, but perform the work of agency himself.

Street Lights - 793 Words

Repair or Replacement of Non-working Street Lights The repair or replacement of non-working street lights in several areas of the city has caused hazardous driving conditions due to low visibility. The city has decided to make the repair and replacement of these lights a priority. Identifying the problem: Although the city has already stated that nonworking street lights has the culprit to the problem the real problem is low visibility. At what level of light output is conditions considered acceptable; for instance is a 1000 watt bulb considered adequate for 500 feet of road? Is this acceptable for all roads? Is a residential area roads need different lighting requirements as a highway or what about historic areas that want to maintain†¦show more content†¦In solving a problem as an algorithm you may need still need to answer heuristic questions such as what is considered adequate lighting, with no data to compare one must just say yes I can see better with a 1000 watt bulb than a 500 watt. Although I’m sure there is data that supports an accident reduction after achieving certain lighting result all the assumed data in this paper is fiction. It might be assumed from the above statement that I would believe that more steps need to be added, how ever I do believe that the steps are sufficient, possibly the only step I could add is a reevaluation step, but I believe the achieved by testing the results step. 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